Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of
learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through
conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.
Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our
behaviors.
According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a
systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental
states. This school of thought suggests that only observable behaviors should
be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions and moods are
too subjective.
There
are two major types of conditioning:
1. Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral
training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response.
Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring
stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the
response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two
elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned
response.
2. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes
referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs
through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.
Behaviourism focuses on actions as habits. Audiolingual
teaching of language is meant to develop speaking habits by repeating sentence
patterns over and over. Another approach, sometimes referred to as a cognitive
approach, focuses more on understanding the mechanism of the grammar. Behaviourism
has been tried and discredited as a theory to language teaching and learning.
Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the
“black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how
people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and
problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or
symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s
schemata.
A response to behaviorism, people are not “programmed
animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational
beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions
are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an
indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the
metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and
leads to certain outcomes.
Edward Tolman proposed a theory that had a cognitive
flair. He was a behaviorist but valued internal mental phenomena in his
explanations of how learning occurs.
Some
of his central ideas were:
1. Behavior should be studied at a local level.
2. Learning can occur without reinforcement.
3. Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
4. Intervening variables must be considered.
5. Behavior is purposive.
6. Expectations of fact behavior.
7. Learning results in an organized body of information.
Based on his research of rats, Tolman proposed that rats
and other organisms develop cognitive maps of their environments. They learn
where different parts of the environment are situated in relation to one
another. The concept of a cognitive map also called a mental map has continued
to be a focus of research.
The
Cognitive Approach (awareness of the rules).
Cognitive theory assumes that responses are also the
result of insight and intentional patterning. A variety of activities practised
in new situations will allow assimilation of what has already been learnt or
partly learnt. It will also create further situations for which existing
language resources are inadequate and must accordingly be modified or extended
- "accommodation". This ensures an awareness and a continuing supply
of learning goals as well as aiding the motivation of the learner.
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