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Saturday, April 28, 2012

Sentence Comprehension and Production

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses.In the field of linguistics, a sentence is an expression in natural language. It is often defined as a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that bear minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion. A sentence can also be defined in orthographic terms alone, i.e., as anything which is contained between a capital letter and a full stop.A sentence can also be defined in orthographic terms alone, i.e., as anything which is contained between a capital letter and a full stop.
As with all language expressions, sentences may contain both function and content words, and contain properties distinct to natural language, such as characteristic intonation and timing patterns. Sentences are generally characterized in most languages by the presence of a finite verb.
Comprehension is sense that a listener feels from the speaker, and takes the interpretation from what the speaker and put it away in my mind, then we cultivate it, and we make a conclusion with the suspense whether good respond or bad.
Sentence comprehension is concerned with how people obtain a particular syntactic analysis for a string of words and assign an interpretation to that analysis. Thus, it is not principally concerned with word recognition, morphological processing, anaphoric resolution, figuratice language, discourse coherence, and inferencing in general (see other chapters).Very roughly, it concentrates on those aspects language comprehension that draw upon the rules and representations that are studied within generative grammar. However, it is important to strees that the goal of this process is to obtain an interpretation for a string words, not simply to obtain a syntactic analysis.
The study of sentence production is the study of how speakers turn messages into utterances. Messages are communicative intentions, the things a speaker means to convey. Utterances are verbal formulations. Theory of sentence production is to explain how speakers use linguistic knowledge in the production of utterances. This requires a specification of the knowledge that speakers have and a specification of the information processing system in which the knowledge is put to use.

Resources:
Dardjowidjojo, Soenjono. (2003). Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia anggota IKAPI.

Tuesday, April 24, 2012

Apa sih TOEFL test ???


Kemarin pacar/temen gua dateng kerumah mau ngasih tau adal TOEFL test di kampus, sebagai syarat sidang skripsi dan hari ini adalah hari terakhir pendaftarannya. Shit men gua ketinggalan berita banget, mana gua ngga tau lagi apa TOEFL test, yang gua tau score TOEFL test kita kudu 500. Mahasiswa bahasa inggris macam apa yang ngga tau ama TOEFL test. Kenapa test-nya kudu di adaian di tanggal tua, kenapa akun twiiter-nya Jupe di hack Depe, Apakah Nobita akan lulus UN tahun ini  WTF WTH WTH OTW BTW. Dengan alasan duit sedang sekarat, asli tinggal 50rb, daftarnya juga 50rb mau makan apa guaaaaaaaa, gua juga ngga mau nyia-nyiain duit buat daftar, gua takut gagal dapet score yang memprihatinkan gua memutuskan buat ikut tahun bulan depan, atau bulan depannya lagi, atau tahun depannya lagi. Mudah-mudahan gua bisa lulus dengan membanggakan, so gua bisa berangakatin orang tua gua haji. Yeah Amien . .
Biar ngga kaget pas TOEFL test, akhirnya gua memutuskan buat browsing, surfing, fucking di Google. Apa sih TOEFL test???? *BigQuestionMark*

Test of English as a Foreign Language disingkat TOEFL adalah ujian kemampuan berbahasa Inggris (logat Amerika) yang diperlukan untuk mendaftar masuk ke kolese (college) atau universitas di Amerika Serikat atau negara-negara lain di dunia.
Test ini biasa digunain buat syarat masuk universitas USA, buat pertimabangin loe layak ngga kuliah di universitas itu. Nilai hasil ujian TOEFL berkisar antara: 310 (nilai minimum) sampai 677 (nilai maximum) kira-kira kalo gua ikut test dapet berapa ya???.
Sebenernya gua mau posting contoh TOEFL test, tapi gua males mau mandi dulu bentar lagi pacar/temen gua mau dateng kerumah, gua mesti mandi dulu biar dia ngga pingsan waktu deket sama gua.
Gua kasih tips aja biar ngga gagal TOEFL test, *padahal gua aja belum pernah*
  1. Loe mesti tanya-tanya dulu sama temen loe yang udah pernah ikutan test, biar ngga kaget pas test.
  2. Kudu banyak baca buku tentang TOEFL test, or browsing surfing fucking internet, biar sedikit ada pencerahan.
  3. Minta do'a restu sama ortu, kalo punya pacar sama pacarnya, kalo jomblo mending loe minum Jus Baygon rasa stroberi+obat nyamuk crispy *mati*
Good Luck Gays

Monday, April 23, 2012

How to Analyze a Short Story or Novel


1. Basic Questions
• Who is the main character?
• Who are the two or three other most important characters?
• How are they related to one another?
2. Big Questions: A First Shot
• What is the story about?
• What are the Big Ideas here? (Can you tell yet?)
3. Mapping I: Places
• Draw a map of the most important places the main character goes through the story, and trace his or her movement.
• Next — maybe in another color? -- tell how the character feels at each place, and what he or she thinks.
• Next — maybe in another color? — tell what the character learns at each place.
• If you like, add other important characters to the map, or perhaps draw new maps for each important character.
4. Mapping II: Events
• Do the same mapping exercise, but this time make it a "time line" listing the important events of the story. (Again, map how the character feels at each place, and what he or she learns.)
5. Mapping III: Character (These can be applied to any important character)
• Make another map, or a timeline — or maybe just a list? — of the following things.
• What does the character, and perhaps other characters, desire?
• What gets in the way of attaining that desire? (In other words, what obstacle does the character meet?)
• What are the character’s main fears? Where do they appear? How are they described?
• Are any of the fears realized? (Do they actually happen?) How? How does the character react?
• What are the character’s main hopes? Where do they appear? How are they described?
• Do any of these hopes materialize? How? How does the character react?
• What does the character see or know that others do not?
• What does the main character not see or know that others do see or know?
6. Mapping IV: Themes
• Are there any important or unusual words or phrases, or objects or places, or feelings or ideas that occur more than once in the story? If so, these things are themes — things repeated several times. They mean to communicate important ideas.
• Make another map — or a list, if you like, or a timeline — and plot these themes in some way.
• Do these themes help you understand important places or events, fears or hopes?
7. Analysis I: Character and Plot
• Now look back at your maps. What are the very most important places and events in the story? How does the character change as a person at these turning points?
• What kind of person is the character at the beginning of the story?
• What kind of person is the character at the end?
• How do his or her relationships change?
• How do the people around him or her change?
8. Analysis II: Images and Ideas
• In the themes you’ve identified, is the author trying to use pictures to talk about ideas?
• List a few of the important pictures — big or small — and try to show how the author is using them to talk about ideas.
• Go back to your first sketchings of big ideas. Can you find any "pictures" in the story that communicate these big ideas?
• Look at the places where the author describes the character’s feelings, ideas, hopes, fears, desires, or obstacles. What pictures does the author draw to help you understand these?
9. Analysis III: Experience and Ideas
• Are there elements of the main character’s experience (or the experience of any other character) that are like your experience? How?
• Do you have experiences that are markedly different from those of the characters?
• Look at the Big Ideas of the story. Are there any that you agree with? Are there any you disagree with?
• What were your emotional reactions to the story? Do they change at various points?
• What is your emotional response to the story now that you’ve finished it?
• What moments in the story affected you the most? Why?
• What moments in the story bothered you the most? Why?
• What were your own hopes, fears, or desires as you read the story? Did these change as the story moved forward? How, and why?

Saturday, April 21, 2012

Elements of a Short Story

Compile by Santiana, S.S., M.Pd.
Definition of a Short Story

  • Tells about a single event or experience 
  • Fictional (not true)
  • 500 to 15,000 words in length
  • It has a beginning, middle, and end
  • Creates an impression on the reader

Elements of a Short Story

  • Setting:Tells the reader where and when the story takes place.
  • Characterization: Creation of imaginary people who appear to be real to the reader.  The writer gives information about the characters in the story.
  • Plot: A series of events through which the writer reveals what is happening, to whom, and why.
  • Conflict: Is a problem in the story that needs to be resolved.
  • Climax: When the action comes to its highest point of conflict.
  • Resolution: The story’s action after the climax until the end of the story. The “conclusion” of the story.
  • Theme: The story’s main ideas.  The “message” the writer intends to communicate by telling the story.
  • Point of view: The position of the narrator of the story and what the writer sees from that vantage point.

Great writers are able to use the elements of the short story with such precision that the reader is caught up in the action of the story.  This is a mark of a good story and our goal as a writer.



Language Comprehension and Production WORDS: MEANING, MEMORY, AND RECOGNITION

A word is a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level and above. It is sometimes identifiable according to such criteria as (1) being the minimal possible unit in a reply (2) having features such as (a) a regular stress pattern, and (b)phonological changes conditioned by or blocked at word boundaries. (3) being the largest unit resistant to insertion of new constituents within its boundaries, or (4) being the smallest constituent that can be moved within a sentence without making the sentence ungrammatical.
Meaning is a notion in semantics classically defined as having two components:   
(1)   Reference, anything in the referential realm denoted by a word or expression, and
(2)   Sense, the system of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships between a lexical unit and other lexical units in a language.
In psychology, memory is the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information that is from the outside world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage we must change the information so that we may put the memory into the encoding process. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that we maintain information over periods of time. Finally the third process is retrieval. This is the retrieval of information that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information.
From an information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory:
(1)   Encoding or registration (receiving, processing and combining of received information)
(2)   Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded information)
(3)   Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity)
Memory can be short-term or long-term.
Short-term memory (or "primary" or "active memory") is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time. The duration of short-term memory (when rehearsal or active maintenance is prevented) is believed to be in the order of seconds.
Long-term memory (LTM) is memory in which associations among items are stored, as part of the theory of a dual-store memory model. According to the theory, long-term memory differs structurally and functionally from working memory or short-term memory, which ostensibly stores items for only around 20–30 seconds and can be recalled easily
Recall is to remember something by thinking or recalling it in your mind from memory whereas recognition is to remember something in your memory through looking at something and recognising it as something seen before.

In understanding and producing language begins with the recognition of language or words, then understand the meaning and save it in memory. So it can perform retrieval process, that is recall the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity . memory is divided into two, the first short term memory, information that is no longer stored in the memory, the second long term memory, that is data or information stored relatively permanent, because often done or pronounced over and over again.

Resources




Thursday, April 19, 2012

Short Story Terms


Compile by Santiana, S.S., M.Pd.
What is a Short Story?
A short story is :  a brief  work of fiction where, usually, the main character faces a conflict that is worked out in the plot of the story
Character
Character – a person in a story, poem or play.
Types of Characters:
  • - Round- fully developed, has many different character traits
  • - Flat- stereotyped, one-dimensional, few traits
  • - Static – Does not change 
  • - Dynamic – Changes as a result of the story's events
Characterization
How the author develops the characters, especially the main character.  
This is done through:
  • - what the character does or says
  • - what others say of and to the character
  • - author’s word choice in descriptive passages
Direct characterization
The author directly states what the character’s personality is like.  Example: cruel, kind
Indirect characterization
Showing a character’s personality through his/her actions, thoughts, feelings, words, appearance or other character’s observations or reactions
Protagonist
Main character of the story that changes
- (death is not a change)
- the most important character
- changes and grows because of experiences in the story
Antagonist
A major character who opposes the protagonist
the antagonist does not change
Types of antagonists:
  • - people
  • - nature
  • - society
Conflict
A struggle between two opposing forces
Types
- Internal – takes place in a character’s own mind
  • Man vs. Him(Her)self
- External – a character struggles against an outside force
  • Man vs. Man
  • Man vs. Nature
  • Man vs. technology, progress
  • Man vs. Society
  • Man vs. Supernatural
What is the Plot?
Plot:  Series of related events that make up a story.
Exposition
Section that introduces characters, the setting, and conflicts.
Setting
The time and place of the story’s action
Rising Action
Consists of a series of complications.  
These occur when the main characters take action to resolve their problems and are met with further problems:
  • - Fear
  • - Hostility
  • - Threatening situation
Climax
The turning point in the story: the high point of interest and suspense
Falling Action
All events following the climax or turning point in the story.  These events are a result of the action taken at the climax.
Resolution (Denoument)
The end of the central conflict: it shows how the situation turns out and ties up loose ends
Point of View
Vantage point from which the writer tells the story.
  • - First person- One of the characters is actually telling the story using the pronoun “I”
  • - Third person- Centers on one character’s    thoughts and actions.
  • - Omniscient- All knowing narrator.  Can center on the thoughts any actions of any and all characters.
Theme
The central message or insight into life revealed through a literary work.
The “main idea” of the story
Flashback
The present scene in the story is interrupted to flash backward and tell what happened in an earlier time. 
Foreshadowing
Clues the writer puts in the story to give the reader a hint of what is to come.
Symbol
An object, person, or event that functions as itself, but also stands for something more than itself.
Example: Scales function is to weigh things, but they are also a symbol of our justice system.
Figurative Language
Involves some imaginative comparison between two unlike things.
  • - Simile – comparing two unlike things using like or as. “I wandered lonely as a cloud”
  • - Metaphor – comparing two unlike things (not using like or as) Life is a roller coaster, it has lots of ups and downs.
  • - Personification – Giving human qualities to non-human things. “The wind howled”
  • - Irony A  contrast between expectation and reality
Irony
  • Verbal Irony – saying one thing but meaning something completely different. - Calling a clumsy basketball player “Michael Jordan”
  • Situational Irony – A contradiction between what we expect to happen and what really does happen
  • Dramatic Irony – occurs when the reader knows something important that the characters in the story do not know.
Allusion
Reference to a statement, person, a place, or events from:
  • Literature
  • History
  • Religion
  • Mythology
  • Politics
  • Sports
Suspense
Uncertainty or anxiety the reader feels about what is going to happen next in a story.
Imagery
Language that appeals to the senses.
  • Touch
  • Taste
  • Sight
  • Sound
  • Smell

Monday, April 16, 2012

Elements of Fiction


COMPILE by SANTIANA, S.S., M.Pd.
Why do we read fiction?

  • The eternal answers to this question are two: enjoyment and understanding.
  • There are two different types of fiction- Commercial and Literary 
  • Commercial Fiction- Written and published primarily to make money, and it makes money because it helps large numbers of people escape the tedium and stress of their lives.   Examples- legal thrillers, romance novels, fantasy, horror, easy-to-read short stories and New York Times best sellers.
  • Literary Fiction-  Written by someone with serious artistic intentions who hopes to broaden, deepen, and sharpen the reader’s awareness of life.  Plunges the reader more deeply into the real world, enabling us to understand life’s difficulties and to empathize with others.
  • These two styles are not clearly defined; many works fit both categories.

The Elements of Fiction
There are eight elements of fiction:
*Plot and Structure
*Characterization
*Theme
*Setting
*Point of View
*Style
*Symbol, Allegory, and Fantasy
*Humor and Irony
While these elements are not all found in every work, they are critical to the understanding of each piece you read.

Plot and Structure

  • Plot- The sequence of incidents or events through which an author constructs a story.

*The plot is not merely the action itself, but the way the author arranges the action toward a specific end (structure).

  • Important elements of Plot:

*Conflict- A clash of actions, ideas, desires, or wills
Types of Conflict:  Person vs. Person, Person vs. Environment, Person vs. Self.
*Protagonist- The central character in a conflict
*Antagonist- Any force arranged against the protagonist- whether persons, things, conventions of society, or the protagonists own personality traits.
*Suspense- The quality in a story that makes readers ask “what’s going to happen next?”.  In more literary forms of fiction the suspense involves more “why” than “what”. Usually produced through two devices; either mystery (an unusual set of circumstances for which the reader craves an explanation) or dilemma (a position in which a character must choose between two courses of action, both undesirable.)
*Artistic unity- Essential for a good plot.  There must be nothing in the story that is irrelevant, that does not contribute to the meaning.  Each event should grow out of the preceding one and lead logically to the next.  The work should have a quality of natural inevitability, given the specific set of characters and the initial situation.
*Deus Ex Machina-  Latin for “God from a machine”.  The saving of the protagonist from an impossible situation.  A form of plot manipulation.

  • Endings-

*Happy Ending-  Everything ends well for our protagonist.  More often used in commercial fiction.
*Unhappy Ending- Most instances in life do not have pleasant ends, so literary fiction that tries to emulate life is more apt to have an unhappy conclusion.  These endings force the reader to contemplate the complexities of life.
*Indeterminate Ending- No definitive ending is reached.  This leaves the reader to ponder the many issues raised through the story without being handed a neat solution.

Characterization

  • Analyzing characterization is more difficult than describing plot; human nature is infinitely complex, variable and ambiguous.  It is much easier to describe what a person has done instead of who a person is.  
  • In commercial fiction, characters are often two-dimensional, and act as vessels to carry out the plot.  The protagonist must be easily identified with and fundamentally decent, if he has vices they are of the more ‘innocent’ type, the kind the reader would not mind having. 
  • In literary fiction, the protagonists are less easily labeled.  Because human nature is often not entirely good or bad literary fiction is made up of three-dimensional characters; ‘real people’.
  • Characters are presented in two different ways- directly and indirectly.

Direct Presentation- The reader is told straight out what the character is like.
Indirect Presentation- The author shows the character through their actions; the reader determines what the character is like by what they say or do.
Dramatization- Characters are shown speaking and behaving, as in a play.
Characterization (cont.)

Types of Characters
* Flat Characters- Usually have one or two predominant traits.  The character can be summed up in just a few lines.
*Round Characters- Complex and many faceted; have the qualities of real people.
* Stock Characters- A type of flat character.  The type of character that appears so often in fiction the reader recognizes them right away.
*Static Character-  A character that remains essentially the same throughout.
*Developing Character-  A character that undergoes a significant change during the story.  There are three conditions that regulate change:
1. It must be consistent with the individual’s characterization as dramatized in the story.
2. It must be sufficiently motivated by the circumstances in which the character is placed.
3. The story must offer sufficient time for the change to take place and still be believable.

Theme

  • The theme of a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its central insight. It is the unifying generalization about life stated or implied by the story.
  • Not all stories have significant themes.  Theme exists only when the author has seriously attempted to record life accurately or to reveal some truth about it, or when the author has deliberately introduced as a unifying element some concept or theory of life that the story illuminates.
  • While theme is central to a story, it is not the whole purpose.  The function of a literary writer is not to state a theme by to vivify it.
  • Theme does not equal “moral”, “lesson”, or “message”.
  • Commercial themes uphold things we would like to believe are true.  Literary themes are more true to life.
  • There is no prescribed method for uncovering a theme, however, focusing on the protagonist, the central conflict and other pieces will make the task easier.

Always keep in mind the following principals concerning theme:

  1. Theme should be expressible in the form of a statement with a subject and predicate.  
  2. The theme should be stated as a generalization about life.
  3. Be careful not to make the generalization larger than is justified by the terms of the story.  Avoid terms like, every, all, always, in favor of words such as, some, sometimes, may.
  4. Theme is the central and unifying concept of a story.  Therefore it accounts for all the major details of the story, is not contradicted by any detail of the story, and cannot rely upon supposed facts.
  5. There is no one way of stating the theme of a story.  As long as the above requirements are met the statement is valid.
  6. Avoid any statement that reduces the theme to a familiar saying that we have heard all our lives.

Setting
The setting of a story is its overall context- where, when and in what circumstances the action occurs.

  • Setting as Place- The physical environment where the story takes place. The description of the environment often points towards its importance.
  • Setting as Time-  Includes time in all of its dimensions.  To determine the importance, ask, “what was going on at that time?”
  • Setting as Cultural Context-  Setting also involves the social circumstances of the time and place.  Consider historical events and social and political issues of the time.
  • Effects of Setting- Creates atmosphere, gives insight to characters, and provides connections to other aspects of the story.

Point of View
Point of View is simply who is telling the story.
*To determine POV ask, “who is telling the story”, and “how much do they know?”
Omniscient POV- The story is told in third person by a narrator who has unlimited knowledge of events and characters.
Third Person Limited POV- The story is told in third person but from the view point of a character in the story.  POV is limited to the character’s perceptions and shows no direct knowledge of what other characters are thinking, feeling, or doing.
*Stream of Consciousness- presents the random thoughts going through a character’s head within a certain period of time.
First Person POV- The author disappears into one of the characters.  Shares the limitations of third person limited.  Uses the pronouns “I” and “we”.
Objective POV- Records only what is seen and heard.  In its purest form, objective POV would consist of only dialogue.  Forces the author to refrain from interpretation.
Second Person POV-  Uses the pronoun “you”.  Infrequently used.


Style

  • Style is the manner in which an author uses words, constructs sentences, incorporates non-literal expressions, and handles rhythm, timing, and tone.
  • When asked to discuss style, you are being asked to describe how or explain why the words, sentences, and imaginative comparisons are effective in terms of what is being created.  

*Diction- Central to an author’s style.  Includes:
1. Vocabulary- Choice of words
a. Simple words- Everyday word choice. (“She was sick for a long time.)
b.  Complex words- Flexing intellectual muscle (“Garages and cotton gins had encroached and obliterated even the august names of that neighborhood.)
c.  Concrete words- Things we can touch, see, etc. (Jeans, book,..)
d.  Abstract words-  Words that express intangible ideas (freedom, heritage, something)
2. Syntax- arrangement of words, their ordering, grouping and placement within phrases, clauses, and sentences.
3.  Rhythm- The pattern of flow and movement created by the choice of words and the arrangement of phrases and sentences.  Rhythm is directly affected by the length and composition of sentences, the use of pauses within sentences, the use of repetition, and the ease or difficulty in pronouncing the combinations of word sounds in the sentences.

Symbol, Allegory, and Fantasy

  • Symbol- Something that means more than what it suggests on the surface. Can be a name, object, action, etc.  Symbols serve to reinforce and add to the meaning of a story, or even sometimes carry the meaning of the story.

*The following cautions should be followed to avoid “over analyzing” a story-
1.  The story itself must furnish a clue that a detail is to be taken symbolically.
2.  The meaning of a literary symbol must be established and supported by the entire context of the story.  The symbol has to have meaning within the story.
3.  To be called a symbol, an item must suggest a meaning different in kind from its literal meaning; a symbol is something more than the representative of a class or type.
4.  A symbol may have more than one meaning.

  • Allegory-  A story that has a second meaning beneath the surface, endowing a cluster of characters, objects, or events with added significance; often the pattern relates each literal item to a corresponding abstract idea or moral principal.  The creation of an allegorical pattern of meaning enables an author to achieve power through economy.  
  • Fantasy-  A nonrealistic story that transcends the bounds of known reality. Requires the reader’s “willing suspension of belief”.  Mainly used for commercial writing but there are several instances of literary fantasy as well. 

Humor and Irony

  • Irony- A humorous technique with a range of meanings that all involve some sort of discrepancy or incongruity.  Often used to critique the world in which we live by laughing at the many varieties of human eccentricity and folly.  

* Verbal Irony- A figure of speech in which the speaker says the opposite of what he or she intends to say.  Sarcasm.
* Dramatic Irony- The contrast between what a character says or thinks and what the reader knows to be true.
* Irony of Situation-  The discrepancy is between apperance and reality, between expectation and fulfillment, or between what is and what would seem appropriate.

  • Humor and irony, like many other elements, are intended to create an emotional impact on the reader.  We must FEEL the truth of a story not just understand it.  
  • Sentimentality- A cheap way of trying to create emotion with the reader. Uses stock response- an emotion that has its source outside of the story (babies, puppies, young love, patriotism…), a “sweet” view of life, and other techniques to avoid having to actually create emotion-inducing situations in the story.  A good writer draws forth emotion by producing a character in a situation that deserves our sympathy and showing us enough about the character and the situation to make them real and convincing. 

*Editorializing- The author’s commenting on the story in order to instruct the reader on how to feel.
*Poeticizing-  Using an immoderately heightened and distended language to accomplish their effects.

Bibliography
Arp, Thomas R. and Johnson, Greg. Literature: Structure, Sound and Sense. 2002
Schakel, Peter and Ridl, Jack.  Approaching Literature in the 21st Century.  2005

Introduction to Fiction : The Short Story


COMPILE by SANTIANA, S.S., M.Pd.

Elements of fiction
I. Plot
  • Dramatic structure 
  • Exposition 
  • Complication 
1. Rising action
2. Conflict
3. Moments of crisis
  • Climax 
  • Dénouement 
1. closed dénouement
2. open dénouement

II. Characterization
  • Protagonist 
  • Antagonist 
  • Development 
  • Motivation
  • Description 
III. Point of view
  • First-person narration
1. The narrator is a participant in the story
2. The narrator must be present at all times
  • Third-person narration
1. employs a non-participant narrator
2. Narrator is capable of moving from place to place in the story and never reveals its source
  • Omniscience
1. total omniscience is where the narrator knows everything
2. editorial point of view goes even further, allowing the godlike author to comment directly on the action
3. limited omniscience is where the storyteller limits himself to the thoughts of a single character
4. dramatic (or objective) point of view is where the narrator simply reports dialogue and action with minimal interpretation and does not delve into characters’ minds

IV. Theme 
  • A story’s “theme” is the overall meaning the reader derives from it. There’s no one “correct” theme, but some are more likely than others.
V. Setting
  • Put simply, it is the time and place of a story. 
1. Locale
2. historical fiction
3. Regionalism
4. magic realism

VI. Style, Tone, and Symbolism
  • Style = a writer’s characteristics of language
1. diction
2. sentence structure
3. punctuation
4. use of figurative language
  • Tone = The tone of the story is what we can indirectly determine about the author’s own feelings about its events from his choice of words
  • Symbolism = When actions take on a larger meaning in the context outside the story


PROSE


COMPILE by SANTIANA, S.S., M.Pd.

What is Prose?
  • Prose is poetry that doesn't rhyme
  • Prose is the most typical form of written language, applying ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry). 
  • The English word "prose" is derived from the Latin prōsa, which literally translates as "straight-forward." While there are critical debates on the construction of prose, its simplicity and loosely defined structure has led to its adoption for the majority of spoken dialogue, factual discourse as well as topical and fictional writing. It is commonly used, for example, in literature, newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias, broadcasting, film, history, philosophy, law and many other forms of communication.
Definition of Prose Literary Term
  • Prose is ordinary language that people use in writing such as poetry, stories, editorials, books, etc. The word prose is derived from the Latin word 'prosa' meaning straightforward. 
  • Prose comes in two types of text - narrative and expository. Narrative text is defined as "something that is narrated such as a story. Expository text is non-fiction reading material such as Description, Analysis, Classification etc.
What is prose in literature?
  • Prose is a type of literature that is written expression without a formal pattern of verse or meter (as opposed to poetry).
  • Prose is any literature that is not written in what?
  • Prose is any literature that is not written in poetic form. In other words, prose generally resembles everyday speech, whereas poetry does not.
How does literature reflect the time in which it is written?
  • Literature can reflect the time in which it was written in several ways:
  • expression: language is always evolving, so writing style can be typical of a particular period. This can apply to vocabulary, sentence construction and even spelling.
  • themes and concerns: historical events, prevailing ideas, developments in science, ideas an out religion or politics, social conventions, all make up a writer's background, and are reflected in the sorts of subjects he chooses and the way he treats them. Thus you have the Romantic poets who were affected by the industrial revolution, and turned to nature, or Shakespeare's plays which are influenced by the renaissance.
  • forms: certain forms or genres are typical of certain periods: tragedy and comedy in Elizabethan times, novels in the 18th and 19th century.
Example of prose literature
  • The types of prose literature include drama (Script play), articles, novels (fiction), and short stories.
What are the differences between prose and literature?
  • Prose is a subheading of literature. There are two, the second being poetry. Prose is anything written as we would speak.
  • Literature, in its broadest definition, is anything written down. Specifically, it is everything from novels to short stories, including drama, poetry, and nonfiction.




Saturday, April 14, 2012

Statistika: PENGUKURAN VARIABILITAS


Variabilitas adalah derajat penyebaran nilai-nilai variabel dari suatu tendensi sentral dalam suatu distribusi. Variabilitas disebut juga sebagai dispersi.
Jika dua distribusi, misalnya distribusi A dan B diperbandingkan. Distribusi A menunjukkan penyebaran nilai-nilai yang lebih besar dari distribusi B, maka dikatakan distribusi A mempunyai variabilitas yang lebih besar dari distribusi B.


Variabilitas dapat diketahui melalui pengukuran :

  1. Range
  2. Mean deviation
  3. Standard deviation
(1) Range adalah jarak antara nilai tertinggi dengan nilai terendah.
R = Xt – Xr
R = Range
Xt = nilai tertinggi
Xr = nilai terendah

Kelemahan Range:
  1. Penggunaannya sangat terbatas.
  2. Sangat tergantung pada nilai tertinggi dan nilai terendah sehingga mempunyai fluktuasi yang sangat besar.
  3. Range kurang memenuhi definisi sebagai alat pengukuran variabilitas karena tidak dapat menunjukkan letak tendensi sentral dan penyebarannya/ tidak menunjukkan bentuk distribusi.
Range 10-90
  • Nilai-nilai yang ekstrem (terlalu rendah atau terlalu tinggi) adalah nilai-nilai yang tidak stabil.
  • Untuk menghindari nilai-nilai yang tidak stabil itu, maka diambil range yang lebih sempit yaitu range antara persentil ke-10 dengan persentil ke-90.
  • Range 10-90 memotong distribusi sebanyak 20 persen, yaitu masing-masing 10 persen pada tiap ujungnya.
  • Rumus R 10-90 = P90 – P10
  • Kelemahan : masih tergantung pada nilai-nilai di bagian ujung distribusi
Range 25-75 
  • Range 25-75 memotong 25 persen dari tiap-tiap ujung distribusi atau 50 persen frekuensi distribusi.
  • Disebut juga sebagai “Range antar Kwartil”
  • R 25-75 = P75 – P25 = K3 – K1
  • Masih memiliki kelemahan karena masih memiliki sifat-sifat Range
Range Semi Antar Kwartil 
  • Range Semi Antar Kwartil (RSAK) adalah separo dari range antar kwartil.
  • RSAK = P75 – P25 = ½ (K3 – K1)
                          2
  • Memiliki sifat yang lebih baik daripada rangerange sebelumnya.
  • Biasanya digunakan bersama-sama dengan median. Median sebagai tendensi sentral dan RSAK untuk mengetahui variabilitasnya.
(2) Mean Deviation
  • Mean Deviation = Average Deviation = Deviasi Rata-rata Adalah rata-rata dari deviasi nilai-nilai dari mean dalam suatu distribusi, diambil nilai absolutnya.
  • Deviasi absolut = nilai-nilai yang positif.
  • MD = ? |x| atau MD = ? f|x|
                N                     N
MD = Mean deviation
? |x| = Jumlah deviasi dalam harga mutlaknya
N = Jumlah individu / kasus

Kelebihan dan Kekurangan MD 
Kelebihan :
  • Mulai dipenuhinya definisi variabilitas, yaitu penyebaran nilai-nilai yang ditinjau dari tendensi sentral
  • Tidak membuang data sedikitpun. Nilai yang ekstrem tetap dipakai.
Kelemahan :
  • Cara penghitungannya mengabaikan tanda-tanda plus dan minus, sehingga tidak dapat dikenai perhitungan matematik yang mempertahankan nilai plus dan minus.
(3) Standard Deviation 
  • Secara matematis, SD adalah akar dari jumlah deviasi kuadrat dibagi banyaknya individu atau akar dari rata-rata deviasi kuadrat.
  • SD = ? ? x2 dimana M = ? x
                 N                     N
SD = Standard Deviasi (? )
? x2 = Jumlah deviasi kuadrat
N = jumlah individu/kejadian dalam distribusi

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Friday, April 6, 2012

Psycholinguistics Paradigm: Cognitivist and Rationalist


                Cognitivist
Cognitive psychology is one of branch of cognitive psychology approach to understand human behavior. Cognitive psychology learn about how people receive, perceive, learn, reason, remember and think about the information.
Cognitive psycholinguistic refers to empirical findings from cognitive psychology to explain the mental processes that underlie the acquisition, storage, production and comprehension of speech and writing.
Cognitive Linguistics argues that there is no separation between knowledge of language with thought or cognition. Cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics is the relation between language and thought.
Cognitive linguistic considers that language behavior is part of the cognitive abilities that allow humans to learn something. Cognitive linguistic considers that all the structure of language is a symbol so, in any language form and meaning are considered to have no form without meaning.
The cognitivists reject the view of the Behaviourist. They believe that "all people learn the language, not because they have the same conditioning process, but because they have an innate capacity that enables them to acquire the language as a normal maturation process.
Rationalist
Rational is something that can be accepted by the mind and thoughts are accepted in accordance with the ability of the brain. Things that are rational is a matter that in the process can be understood in accordance with reality and reality that exist. Usually the word rational is intended for one thing or activity that makes sense and is well received by the community. Also means that rational norms is standard in the community and has become a regular and permanent.
Plato argues that humans acquire knowledge by concluding with logical way.
Rationalist genre known as the mentalis genre, in which one character is Noam Chomsky. This genre is also called Chomsky genre. Which since 1957 brought important changes in the language.
The rationalist argued that every language has a same way in forming. Almost every language has a sound system, word formation system, the structure of time, at and vocabulary.
The rationalists argue also that the language must be learned and the only human who could learn the language (Hidayat, 1944:65). therefore The rationalist develop principles:
1. A living language is characterized by creativity demanded by the rules.
2. Grammar rules related to the real behavior of psychiatric,
3. Humans are the only creatures who learn the language, and
4. Living language is a language that can be used in thinking.

Sources:
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasional
http://jurnal.pdii.lipi.go.id/admin/jurnal/110893103.pdf

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Wednesday, April 4, 2012

Interactionist Paradigm of Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics or psychology of   language is a science That discuss   the processes of acquisition and the   use of language in terms of psychology (Nan Bernstein Ratner, et al.1998). Generally, three main points Psycholinguistics study (Clark & ​​Clark, 1977; Tanenhaus, 1989):
  • Comprehension.
  • Speech Production.
  • Acquisition.
Paradigm in the intellectual discipline is the someone perspective about themselves and their environment that will influence :
1.Thought (cognitive), 
2.attitude (affective), and   
3.behavior (conative).
About how people acquire or learn the language, Ellis (in Yulianto, 2007:10-11) expressed
that there are three groups  of the Psycholinguistics paradigm , namely :
1.Behaviorist,
This theory emphasize that first language acquisition process is controlled from outside
thechild (human), namely the stimulus that given by the environment.
2.Nativist ,
Nativist’ theories does not consider the environment have influence in language acquisition,
but considers the provision of a biological language.
3.Interactionist.
This theory is  combination of two previous approaches of  behaviorist and  nativist that
emphasizes a combination of internal and external factors in the process of language
acquisition and learning.
Ellis, (1986: 126)
Interactionist assumes that language acquisition is the result of interaction between mental
ability learners with language environment.
Van Els (in Yulianto, 2007: 24)
Interactionist assumes by stated a procedural approach, where the approach is the
interaction between internal factors with external factors are central.
Application of Interactionist Paradigm
human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols, by interpretation, or determination the
meaning of the other peoples’ actions.

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