Approach to Language: Behaviorist and Cognitivist

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our behaviors.

According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. This school of thought suggests that only observable behaviors should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions and moods are too subjective.

There are two major types of conditioning:

1.      Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.

2.      Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Behaviourism focuses on actions as habits. Audiolingual teaching of language is meant to develop speaking habits by repeating sentence patterns over and over. Another approach, sometimes referred to as a cognitive approach, focuses more on understanding the mechanism of the grammar. Behaviourism has been tried and discredited as a theory to language teaching and learning.

Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata.

A response to behaviorism, people are not “programmed animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes.

Edward Tolman proposed a theory that had a cognitive flair. He was a behaviorist but valued internal mental phenomena in his explanations of how learning occurs.

Some of his central ideas were:

1.      Behavior should be studied at a local level.

2.      Learning can occur without reinforcement.

3.      Learning can occur without a change in behavior.

4.      Intervening variables must be considered.

5.      Behavior is purposive.

6.      Expectations of fact behavior.

7.      Learning results in an organized body of information.

Based on his research of rats, Tolman proposed that rats and other organisms develop cognitive maps of their environments. They learn where different parts of the environment are situated in relation to one another. The concept of a cognitive map also called a mental map has continued to be a focus of research.

The Cognitive Approach (awareness of the rules).

Cognitive theory assumes that responses are also the result of insight and intentional patterning. A variety of activities practised in new situations will allow assimilation of what has already been learnt or partly learnt. It will also create further situations for which existing language resources are inadequate and must accordingly be modified or extended - "accommodation". This ensures an awareness and a continuing supply of learning goals as well as aiding the motivation of the learner.

Sources:

http://www.btinternet.com/~ted.power/esl0312.html

http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Behaviourism_as_a_theory_of_language_teaching_and_learning

http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html

http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~Lynda_abbot/Cognitive.html

The Relationship Between Language and Cognition and The Role of Formal Teaching of Language Acquisition

Language is a human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols.language is used as a communication tool for sharing information with others.

Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension. These processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning. Actually there are two views of experts on the relationship between language and cognition. Piaget argued that a child's knowledge and observations lead to the emergence of a language development. without cognition, there will be no one language. in other words, language is a reflection of the development of cognition. Different views of Vygotsky about the importance of cultural and social environment by learning the language. although the strength is very important cognition, language that would affect child cognition. With language, children will make interpretation on the surrounding environment. Language which triggers the interpretation that would then encourage children to think. Language and cognition influence each other, without either language or cognition will not be developed.

Language Acquisition or How people learn language is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to communicate.

There are two types of language learning, naturalistic and formal learning. The first naturalistic, is natural and unconsciously. It occurs in the environment of society and started from the beginning (when a child has not mastered any language) and the development of language acquisition is in line with the physical and psychological development.

Second language acquisition is not same with the first language acquisition. Here students had to master their first language well and the development of second language acquisition is not in line with the physical and psychological development. It conducted formally and the motivation of students in general is not too high because a second language is not used for everyday communication in their community.

Generally the role of formal teaching of second language acquisition is designed for achieve the goals that students masters their second language, suffice the sub skills as speaking, listening, reading, and writing even they could appreciate the literature works for every needs. 

Classroom as a place for teaching and learning process, is really important especially for the beginner who have not more input from their informal environment. So it means that classroom should provide the activities that give more inputs for the students progress.

A teacher needs to understand the true purpose of the teaching of second language, to master the various strategies for different purposes, has the capability required the development of teaching materials, and has the ability to choose or develop evaluation tools and techniques as appropriate.

The student is a central element in teaching. All materials and learning activities also evaluation should be designed and implemented in accordance with the conditions and needs of students. The success of the second language held a large part determined by the student. There are several factors that influence; student motivation, ability, attitude, self concept, strong responsibility, and learning styles. Student is not the teaching object but a subject, who thinks solve problems, operate, and make decisions, and so on.

In teaching should be appropriate to the students needs, students' abilities, and students interests to the material to be delivered.

Sources:

http://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/languageterm.htm

http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/def_cognition.htm

http://endro.staff.umy.ac.id/?p=126  http://endro.staff.umy.ac.id/?p=124

http://addi-muhaemin.blogspot.com/2012/03/scope-of-psycholinguistics-studies-and.html

Click here to download full explanation.

LINGUISTIC CREATIVITY, RULE AND RELEVANCE OF COGNITIVE THEORY TO LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Linguistic creativity related with language skills. Competency in itself means the ability to speak, use language, use words effectively and be able to use good grammar and develop a good word or a sentence of the person in their environment. Creativity not only contributes to increasing students’ motivation but also promotes problem solving, a higher order thinking skill. Creativity in language is not only a property of especially skilled and gifted language users, but is pervasive in routine everyday practice. Language users who creatively design meaning are in the focus of attention, with the consequence of interactional functions of creativity being shed light on alongside the textual analysis of poetic form.  

Language has always played a certain role  in the history of psychology. According to Stern (1983: 291) psychology  can be defined as the science of the mental life and behavior of the individual.  Psychology studies the behavior , activities, conduct, and mental processes.  Since speech  is one of the features that distinguishes man most clearly from other species, it becomes an object of psychological enquiry.  From about 1900 the objects of psychological studies paid attention to not only the learning, memory, thinking and intelligence (the higher mental processes), but also to the emotions, personality, psychological growth of the child, and the measurement of individual differences. the cognitive view takes the learner to be an active processor of information (see Ausubel et al., 1978).  Learning and using a rule require learners to think, that is, to apply their mental powers in order to distil a workable generative rule from the mass of data presented, and then to analyze the situations where the application of the rule would be useful or appropriate.  Learning, then, is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data, and learning can be said to have taken place when the learner has managed to impose some sort of meaningful interpretation or pattern on the data.  This may sound complex, but in simple terms what it means is that we learn by thinking about and trying to make sense of what we see, feel and hear. (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987 : 43). 

There are two ways to conceive of how thoughts are communicated from one person to another. The first way is through the use of strict coding and decoding, (such as is used with Morse code). In this approach the speaker/author encodes their thoughts and transmits them to their audience. The audience receives the encoded message and decodes it to arrive at the meaning the speaker/author intended. This can be visualized as follows:

Speaker's thought/intention   ⇒   encoded   ⇒   transmitted   ⇒   decoded   ⇒   intention/thought understood.

Uncovering some of the most common misconceptions about the field.  Language as a general phenomenon and took a look at English in particular. The relevance of linguistics to education professionals, specifically primary and secondary school teacher.

Sources:

http://windyaningrum.blogspot.com/2011/04/artikel-psikolinguistik.html 

http://www.acta.sapientia.ro/acta-philo/C2-2/philo22-7.pdf 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance_theory 

http://cslipublications.stanford.edu/pdf/1575863588.pdf

Klik di sini untuk download file.

THE NATURE OF HUMAN LANGUAGE AS COGNITIVE AND COMMUNICATIVE SYSTEM

Language as a communication system is a tool to express our thoughts, our feelings, and our opinion

The nature of language is the nature of human thought and human action, for language is no more or less than the tool of both of these aspects of human nature. A word is either the shadow of an act or of an idea. Verbal sounds have no meaning in themselves. They are the channels, the media for the expression or communication of that which lies outside of them. Plato has made clear to us how easy it is to deceive ourselves with words, to labor under an impression that just because we can utter a sound we also necessarily know what we are talking about.

Cognitive theory include mental activities such conscious thinking, knowing, understanding, and mental conceptions and activities such as: attitudes, beliefs, and expectations, which then was a decisive factor in the behavior. In the cognitive theory have a strong interest in the answer (response) for the consequences of behavior that are closed. For in this case it is difficult to observe directly the process of thinking and understanding, and also hard to touch and see attitude, values and beliefs.

Cognitive theory believes that a person's behavior was caused by a stimulus, which is a physical object that affects a person in many ways. This theory tries to see what happens between stimulus and response to stimulate such person. In other words, how stimulus are processed in a person.

Communicative Theory

Language is verbal tool which is used for communication and spoken language is the process of conveying information in communication, Different individuals define communication in different ways depending upon their interests. Ruben (1984) says that communication is any “information related behavior.” Dale (1969) says it is the “sharing of ideas and feelings in a mood of mutuality.” Other definitions emphasize the significance of symbols, as in Berelson and Steiner (1964): “The transmission of information, ideas, emotions and skills…by the use of symbols,” and Theodorson and Theodorson (1969):“the transmission of information, ideas, attitudes, or emotion from one person or group to another…primarily through symbols.”

Communicative Aspects

As a means of communication, a language that consists of two aspects:

1. Linguistic aspects
2. Nonlinguistic aspects or paralinguistics

Both of these aspects work together in building a language of communication. Linguistic aspects include the level of phonological, morphological, and syntactic. This supports the formation of a third level to be delivered, the semantics (in which there is meaning, idea, concept idea).

Language in Communication

Language is closely connected with communication. In every language of communication there are two parties involved, those are the sender of the message (sender) and the recipient (receiver). Utterance (a sentence or sentences) are used to convey the message (in the form of ideas, thoughts, suggestions, etc.) is called a message. In this message the other carriers are not ideas (thoughts, suggestions, etc.) delivered the sender (speaker) to the receiver (listener). Each language communication process begins with the poster who wants to formulate advance is uttered within a framework of ideas. This process is known as the term semantic encoding.

Second Language Acquisition: Principles, Theories and Practice

21st

       Second language acquisition is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition (SLA) is also the name of the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's first language; although the concept is named second language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth or subsequent languages. Second-language acquisition refers to what learners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching.

Principles of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) are:

1. Language is Changeable and Vocabulary has an Important Role in Acquisition; All languages are a tool which can be manipulated to serve the needs of those who use it. But language is always changeable; it caused there is no language can develop without the development of the society.  So that when the society develop, certaintly language also develop.
2. Language Acquisition is also Cultural Acquisition; Language is the composition of culture, is the load of culture. In short, language and culture are merged tightly.
3. Language Acquisition is A Long–term Process; We know that language acquisition is inseparable from its culture and culture acquisition can't be acquired in a short time. So language acquisition needs a reasonably long time.
4. Motivation is the Stimulation of Second Language Acquisition; Motivation is the generator to do something. Good motivation can improve work or study of something. Language acquisition is not a simple job but an affordable work, which needs long and sometimes painful process.
5. Native Language Proficiency is of Benefit to Second Language Acquisition; In the world, different nations normally have different languages; however, any language proficiency including native language surely contributes to second language acquisition because there is no language that exists without any rules. One can use one rule in this language and that at some cases.
6. Social Factors Affect the Second Language Acquisition; The social factors affect our lives and also have a great impact on second language acquisition but probably do not influence it directly.
7. Individual Acquirer Differences Differ in Second Language Acquisition: Cognitive style is a term used to refer to the manner in which people perceive, conceptualize, organize, and recall information. Each person is considered to have a more or less consistent mode of cognitive functioning. “Open” or “close” person in character is different from acquisition of language.

Therories of Second language Acquisition (SLA):

1. The Acculturation Model: Second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the terget language group will control the degree to which he acquires the second language.(Schumann 1978:34)
2. The Nativization Model: Andersen sees two general forces; nativization and denativization. Nativization consists of assimilation while denativization involves accomodation. The acculturation and nativist models focus on the power mechanisms of SLA
3. Accomodation Theory: This theory does not explain assembly mechanisms nor account for the developmental sequence. The strenght of accomodation theory is that it encompasses language acquisition and language use within a single framework. This theory provides an explanation of language-learner language variability.
4. Discourse Theory: Through communicating with other people, children accomplish actions in the world and develop the rules of language structure and use. This view of how the development takes place is called discourse theory. The discourse theory does not address the nature of the learner strategies responsible for SLA.
5. The Monitor Model: Causative variables taken into account in the Monitor Model. The monitor, the only evidence for monitoring lies in the language user's own account of trying to apply explicit rules ( e.g Cohen and Robbins 1976) and Krashen's treatment of variability.
6. The Variable Competence Model: The process of language use is to be understood in terms of the distnction between linguistic knowledge and the ability to make use of this knowledge. The variable competence model of SLA attemps to account for the availability of languages learners and the external and internal processes responsible for SLA.
7. The universal hypothesis: The universal hypothesis provides an interesting account of how the languages properties of the target language and the learner's first language may influence the course development. 
8. A neurofucntional theory: A neurofucntional perspective on language attempts to characterize the neurolinguistic information processing systems responsible for the development and use of language. Neurofucntional accounts of SLA have considered the contribution of The left hemisphere and The right hemisphere of the brain. Right hemisphere is responsible for the storing and processing of formulaic speech. Left hemisphere functioning, in general the left hemisphere is asscociated with the creative language use, including syntatic and semantic processing and the motor operations involved in speaking and writing. 

Practice of Second Language Acquisition:

1. Learning in The Classroom. Teacher need the resources of an authentic language learning. It is especially needed when we study a second language in our own country. Sources of learning the language used should be authentic in terms of pronunciation, intonation, accent and idiom. In addition the teacher / the school is required to provide newspapers and magazines in both languages because it is a valid reading of two sources and always provide the latest information about the culture of both.
2. Learning Self-taught. This method can be done in a way to buy a CD or DVD learning a second language that many are sold in bookstores / tapes or can be ordered online via the Internet. Fundamental weakness of this learning method is the absence of accompanying teachers, so that when students need to ask, no one can answer. 
3. The Exchange of Langauge. Learning a second language by using this method requires students to find native speakers who are studying a second language and who want to learn the mother tongue or first language of students, so the two can teach each other their respective languages. This can be done by accessing several sites on the Internet that offer these services
4. Traveled and Lived for Some Time Abroad. By traveling abroad or even the opportunity to stay for some time abroad, students will be able to understand the culture of local people. He can see and realize the similarities nor the differences between people and the culture of the nation's culture whose language is being learned.

Sources:

http://fharrachman.blogspot.com/2010/12/eight-theories-of-second-language.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-language_acquisition

http://fanyaiiu.blogspot.com/2012/06/second-language-acquition-principles.html

LANGUAGE THOUGHT AND UTTERANCE

compile by Adi Wangsa

LANGUAGE
Language is the  human communication device for expressing the thoughts or feelings in the form of communication symbols, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols.

THOUGHT
Thought generally refers to any mental or intellectual activity involving an individual's subjective consciousness. The thought underlies almost all human actions and interactions, understanding its physical and metaphysical origins, processes, and effects.

UTTERENCE
Speech is pure sound (speech), directly, from the person who speaks. So it is something good speech in the form of words, sentences, ideas coming out of the mouth of humans that have meaning. With this speech the meaning of it will emerge syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic. utterance is a smallest unit of speech. It can be represented and delineated in written language in many ways.

LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
Relationship between language and thought that is in the use of language becomes a process of changing the thought become a code and changing the code become a thought. Language and thought can be influences to each other. Such as :

• The thought influences the language. 

This is because, all human action is based on the patterns of thought . A good mindset will produce good actions, including language. For example, people who lose their minds (the thought do not functioning normally) will not be able to speak properly. Like the pre-school children in general have not been able to speak fluently because it has a limited vocabulary than normal adults. This is because the pre-school age their brains not yet fully developed.

• Language influences the thought

Through observations made by Piaget on cognitive development of children. He saw that the child's cognitive development will influence language it uses. The higher cognitive aspects the higher the uses of language. Or the uses of language between adults and Child will be different. Because adult has a higher cognitive.
Some Linguist try to explain the relationship between language and thought, or more collapsible, how language influences the thought. Exposure of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf are widely quoted by researcers in examining the relationship the language and thought sre the difference language structure is genearally parallel with the cognitive differences and human cognitive stucture is determained by the categories and  sttructures that already exist in the language.

LANGUAGE AND UTTERANCE
language is a form of utterance where the language that have produced contains the meaning and can be understood by humans. so the utterence will be understand with language.

THOUGHT AND UTTERANCE 
In general, a thought can be expressed in a the sentence. It can be interpreted also in expressing a sentence, it takes a thought. The sentence contained in the proposition that there are huge numbers. In the application of these propositions to act as a complement clause to the sentence stem.

LANGUAGE, THOUGHT AND UTTERANCE
The relationship of language, thought, and utterance that is in the use of language becomes a process of changing minds and changing the code into your mind code. Utterances is a synthesis of the process of changing the concept of a code. Thought can be expressed in a the sentence. It can be interpreted also in expressing a sentence, it takes a thought.


Source :
http://eka-karatika.blogspot.com/2011/11/bahasa-dan-pikiran.html
http://susilo.adi.setyawan.student.fkip.uns.ac.id/2009/10/21/pikiran-dan-bahasa-dalam-kajian-psikolinguistik/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought

Language Production and Comprehension: Discourse Comprehension and Production

Discourse generally refers to written or spoken communication. A discourse is an instance of language use whose type can be classified on the basis of such factors as grammatical and lexical choices and their distribution in main versus, supportive materials, theme, style, and, the framework of knowledge and expectations within which the addressee interprets the discourse.

Discourse comprehension is the act of interpreting a written or spoken message by integrating the incoming information into the memory or knowledge structures of the interpreter. As such it involves social and pragmatic knowledge as well as grammatical and logical knowledge.

Keeping in mind that “language is for doing things” (Clark, H.H., 1996), discourse production can be understood as the planning and execution of actions under specific social contexts. Here, actions refer to certain kinds of goal-oriented events that establish or prevent changes in the world (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983). This planning and execution of a particular action in discourse is called a speech act, i.e. doing something with language. Examples of speech acts are promises, requests, congratulations, accusations, etc.

In spoken discourse, before delving into a conversation with someone, the speaker (or actor) must first evaluate the social context of the situation and set out a strategic plan of discourse production accordingly. Say, for example, that someone is being located to Afghanistan for work, and for whatever reason - be it you will miss them too much or are concerned for their safety - you do not want them to go. In such a case, you would use discourse to arrive at a desired outcome where the person does not go to Afghanistan. To arrive at this outcome, you need to plan a strategy and decide what kind of speech act to use. Assuming the person is your friend, commands would seem mean, and requests might come across as selfish. Warnings, advice, or suggestions might show your concern for the person, and would likely be your best plan of action (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983).

Like written text, conversational discourse also has micro and macro components. The macro speech act is the overall intention or goal of the speaker, while the micro speech act refers to the individual exchanges of information between the speaker and listener in the conversation. The strategic planning that was just discussed is driven by the macro speech act (I don’t want you to go to Afghanistan, is the macro speech act in the example above). We use micro speech acts to arrive at the overall goal, of which the macro speech act is the motivation. Previous speech acts and the hearer’s reaction to them also influence what the speaker will say next (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983). So the challenge of the speaker is to reach their goal, while keeping in mind (and in conversation) the reactions and micro speech act of the hearer.

Sources:

http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405131995_yr2012_chunk_g97814051319959_ss49-1

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsADiscourse.htm

http://www.google.co.id/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CGoQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pitt.edu%2F~perfetti%2FPDF%2FGraesser%2520Millis%2520%26%2520%2520Zwaan.pdf&ei=I9SjT4ilKcXhrAeV-8WYBg&usg=AFQjCNEWjkjvXkVshv5K2V3lVkUmr4r_yQ&sig2=BC95ubRQB2V2CsGt7bO8qw

Sentence Comprehension and Production

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses.In the field of linguistics, a sentence is an expression in natural language. It is often defined as a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that bear minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion. A sentence can also be defined in orthographic terms alone, i.e., as anything which is contained between a capital letter and a full stop.A sentence can also be defined in orthographic terms alone, i.e., as anything which is contained between a capital letter and a full stop.

As with all language expressions, sentences may contain both function and content words, and contain properties distinct to natural language, such as characteristic intonation and timing patterns. Sentences are generally characterized in most languages by the presence of a finite verb.

Comprehension is sense that a listener feels from the speaker, and takes the interpretation from what the speaker and put it away in my mind, then we cultivate it, and we make a conclusion with the suspense whether good respond or bad.

Sentence comprehension is concerned with how people obtain a particular syntactic analysis for a string of words and assign an interpretation to that analysis. Thus, it is not principally concerned with word recognition, morphological processing, anaphoric resolution, figuratice language, discourse coherence, and inferencing in general (see other chapters).Very roughly, it concentrates on those aspects language comprehension that draw upon the rules and representations that are studied within generative grammar. However, it is important to strees that the goal of this process is to obtain an interpretation for a string words, not simply to obtain a syntactic analysis.

The study of sentence production is the study of how speakers turn messages into utterances. Messages are communicative intentions, the things a speaker means to convey. Utterances are verbal formulations. Theory of sentence production is to explain how speakers use linguistic knowledge in the production of utterances. This requires a specification of the knowledge that speakers have and a specification of the information processing system in which the knowledge is put to use.

Resources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)

http://www.readingrockets.org/helping/target/comprehension/

Dardjowidjojo, Soenjono. (2003). Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia anggota IKAPI.

Language Comprehension and Production WORDS: MEANING, MEMORY, AND RECOGNITION

A word is a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level and above. It is sometimes identifiable according to such criteria as (1) being the minimal possible unit in a reply (2) having features such as (a) a regular stress pattern, and (b)phonological changes conditioned by or blocked at word boundaries. (3) being the largest unit resistant to insertion of new constituents within its boundaries, or (4) being the smallest constituent that can be moved within a sentence without making the sentence ungrammatical.

Meaning is a notion in semantics classically defined as having two components:   

(1)   Reference, anything in the referential realm denoted by a word or expression, and

(2)   Sense, the system of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships between a lexical unit and other lexical units in a language.

In psychology, memory is the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information that is from the outside world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage we must change the information so that we may put the memory into the encoding process. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that we maintain information over periods of time. Finally the third process is retrieval. This is the retrieval of information that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information.

From an information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory:

(1)   Encoding or registration (receiving, processing and combining of received information)

(2)   Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded information)

(3)   Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity)

Memory can be short-term or long-term.

Short-term memory (or "primary" or "active memory") is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time. The duration of short-term memory (when rehearsal or active maintenance is prevented) is believed to be in the order of seconds.

Long-term memory (LTM) is memory in which associations among items are stored, as part of the theory of a dual-store memory model. According to the theory, long-term memory differs structurally and functionally from working memory or short-term memory, which ostensibly stores items for only around 20–30 seconds and can be recalled easily

Recall is to remember something by thinking or recalling it in your mind from memory whereas recognition is to remember something in your memory through looking at something and recognising it as something seen before.

In understanding and producing language begins with the recognition of language or words, then understand the meaning and save it in memory. So it can perform retrieval process, that is recall the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity . memory is divided into two, the first short term memory, information that is no longer stored in the memory, the second long term memory, that is data or information stored relatively permanent, because often done or pronounced over and over again.

Resources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAWord.htm

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsMeaning.htm

Psycholinguistics Paradigm: Cognitivist and Rationalist

                Cognitivist

Cognitive psychology is one of branch of cognitive psychology approach to understand human behavior. Cognitive psychology learn about how people receive, perceive, learn, reason, remember and think about the information.

Cognitive psycholinguistic refers to empirical findings from cognitive psychology to explain the mental processes that underlie the acquisition, storage, production and comprehension of speech and writing.

Cognitive Linguistics argues that there is no separation between knowledge of language with thought or cognition. Cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics is the relation between language and thought.

Cognitive linguistic considers that language behavior is part of the cognitive abilities that allow humans to learn something. Cognitive linguistic considers that all the structure of language is a symbol so, in any language form and meaning are considered to have no form without meaning.

The cognitivists reject the view of the Behaviourist. They believe that "all people learn the language, not because they have the same conditioning process, but because they have an innate capacity that enables them to acquire the language as a normal maturation process.

Rationalist

Rational is something that can be accepted by the mind and thoughts are accepted in accordance with the ability of the brain. Things that are rational is a matter that in the process can be understood in accordance with reality and reality that exist. Usually the word rational is intended for one thing or activity that makes sense and is well received by the community. Also means that rational norms is standard in the community and has become a regular and permanent.

Plato argues that humans acquire knowledge by concluding with logical way.

Rationalist genre known as the mentalis genre, in which one character is Noam Chomsky. This genre is also called Chomsky genre. Which since 1957 brought important changes in the language.

The rationalist argued that every language has a same way in forming. Almost every language has a sound system, word formation system, the structure of time, at and vocabulary.

The rationalists argue also that the language must be learned and the only human who could learn the language (Hidayat, 1944:65). therefore The rationalist develop principles:

1. A living language is characterized by creativity demanded by the rules.

2. Grammar rules related to the real behavior of psychiatric,

3. Humans are the only creatures who learn the language, and

4. Living language is a language that can be used in thinking.

Sources:

http://www.scribd.com/andalusianeneng/d/30670186-Cognitive-Linguistics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics

http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasional
http://jurnal.pdii.lipi.go.id/admin/jurnal/110893103.pdf

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Interactionist Paradigm of Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics or psychology of   language is a science That discuss   the processes of acquisition and the   use of language in terms of psychology (Nan Bernstein Ratner, et al.1998). Generally, three main points Psycholinguistics study (Clark & ​​Clark, 1977; Tanenhaus, 1989):

• Comprehension.
• Speech Production.
• Acquisition.

Paradigm in the intellectual discipline is the someone perspective about themselves and their environment that will influence :

1.Thought (cognitive), 

2.attitude (affective), and   

3.behavior (conative).

About how people acquire or learn the language, Ellis (in Yulianto, 2007:10-11) expressed
that there are three groups  of the Psycholinguistics paradigm , namely :

1.Behaviorist,

This theory emphasize that first language acquisition process is controlled from outside

thechild (human), namely the stimulus that given by the environment.

2.Nativist ,

Nativist’ theories does not consider the environment have influence in language acquisition,

but considers the provision of a biological language.

3.Interactionist.

This theory is  combination of two previous approaches of  behaviorist and  nativist that

emphasizes a combination of internal and external factors in the process of language

acquisition and learning.

Ellis, (1986: 126)

Interactionist assumes that language acquisition is the result of interaction between mental

ability learners with language environment.

Van Els (in Yulianto, 2007: 24)

Interactionist assumes by stated a procedural approach, where the approach is the

interaction between internal factors with external factors are central.

Application of Interactionist Paradigm

human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols, by interpretation, or determination the

meaning of the other peoples’ actions.

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